MALA ŠKOLA KULTURE I SUBKULTURE GOVORA

  

 

MARKS, ENGELS I LENJIN O OKOLIŠU I RAZVOJU (1/2)

MARX, ENGELS AND LENIN ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT (1/2)

Aleksandar Knežević

 

Ne laskajmo sebi suviše zbog naših ljudskih pobjeda nad prirodom Ali ne laskajmo sebi suviše zbog naših ljudskih pobeda nad prirodom. Za svaku takvu pobedu ona nam se sveti. Istina, svaka od njih ima u prvom redu one posljedice na koje smo mi računali, ali u drugom i trećem redu ona ima sasvim druge, nepredviđene posledice, koje veoma često poništavaju one prve. Ljudi koji su u Mesopotamiji, Grčkoj, Maloj Aziji i drugde iskrčili šume da bi dobili ziratnu zemlju nisu ni sanjali da su time položili temelje sadašnjoj pustoši tih zemalja, lišivši ih zajedno sa šumama i centara za skupljanje i zadržavanje vlage. Kad su alpski Italijani na južnim padinama planina iskrčili jelove šume, tako brižljivo čuvane na severnim padinama, nisu ni slutili da su time posjekli korjen planinskom stočarstvu na svome području; još manje su slutili da su time svojim planinskim izvorima oduzeli vodu za najveći deo godine, da bi ti izvori za vrijeme kiša mogli izlivati na ravnicu još bešnje bujice. Ljudi koji su rasprostranjivali krompir po Evropi nisu znali da s tim brašnjastim gomoljikama ujedno rasprostranjuju i skrofulozu. I tako nas činjenice na svakom koraku podsjećaju na to da mi nipošto ne vladamo prirodom kao što osvajač vlada tuđim narodom, kao neko ko stoji izvan prirode, nego da svojim mesom, krvlju i mozgom njoj pripadamo i usred nje stojimo, i da se sva naša vlast nad njom sastoji u tome što nad svim ostalim stvorovima imamo to preimućstvo da možemo saznavati i pravilno primenjivati njene zakone. I mi, u stvari, svakim danom učimo da tačnije razumevamo njene zakone i da saznajemo bliže i dalje posledice naših zahvata u uobičajeni tok prirode. Osobito poslije ogromnih uspjeha prirodnih nauka u ovom vijeku, mi smo sve više u stanju da  upoznajemo, a time i savlađujemo i udaljenije prirodne posledice bar najobičnijih naših operacija u oblasti proizvodnje. I ukoliko se više to bude dešavalo, utoliko će više ljudi ne samo opet osećati nego i znati da čine jedinstvo s prirodom. I životinje svojom djelatnošću mijenjaju prirodu Životinje, kao što smo već pomenuli, takođe menjaju svojom delatnošću spoljnu prirodu, iako ne u onolikoj meri kao čovek, i to njihovo menjanje okoline vrši opet, kao što smo videli, povratan uticaj na svoje uzročnike, izazivajući  kod njih promene. Jer se u prirodi ništa ne zbiva izolovano. Svaka pojava utiče na drugu, i obrnuto i u većini slučajeva baš zaboravljanje tog svestranog kretanja i uzajamnog delovanja sprečava naše prirodnjake da jasno vide najjednostavnije stvari. Videli smo kako koze ometaju ponovno pošumljavanje Grčke; na Svetoj Jeleni uspele su koze i svinje, koje su onamo dovezli prvi moreplovci, da staru vegetaciju ostrva gotovo potpuno unište, i tako su pripremile tle za širenje onih biljaka koje su tamo doneli kasnije pomorci i kolonisti. Ali kad životinje trajno deluju na svoju okolinu, to se događa nenamerno, i to je, za same te životinje, nešto slučajno. Ukoliko se ljudi više udaljavaju od životinja, utoliko njihovo delovanje na prirodu sve više dobija karakter smišljenog, planskog delovanja prema određenim, unapred poznatim ciljevima. Životinja uništava vegetaciju jednog predela ne znajući šta radi. Čovek je uništava da bi na oslobođenom tlu sejao žitarice ili sadio drveće i vinovu lozu, za koje zna da će mu doneti rod koji nekoliko puta premašuje ono što je posejao ili posadio. On prenosi korisne biljke i domaće životinje iz jedne zemlje u drugu i tako menja floru i faunu čitavih delova sveta. Rad je pre svega proces između čoveka i prirode Rad je pre svega proces između čoveka i prirode, proces u kome čovek svojom sopstvenom aktivnošću omogućuje, reguliše i nadzire svoju razmenu materije s prirodom. Prema prirodnoj materiji on sam istupa kao prirodna sila. On pokreće prirodne snage svoga tijela, ruke i noge, glavu i šaku da bi prirodnu materiju prilagodio sebi u obliku upotrebljivom za njegov život. Time što ovim kretanjem djeluje na prirodu izvan sebe i mijenja je on ujedno mijenja i svoju sopstvenu prirodu. On razvija snage koje u njoj dremaju, i potčinjava njihovu igru svojoj vlasti. Ne radi se ovde o prvim životinjskim instinktivnim oblicima rada. Ono stanje kad se ljudski rad još nije bio otresao prvog nagonskog oblika daleko je zaostalo u maglama prastarih vremena za stanjem kad radnik istupa na robnom tržištu kao prodavač sopstvene radne snage. Mi pretpostavljamo rad u obliku kakav je svojstven samo čoveku. Pauk vrši operacije slične tkačevim, a gradnjom svojih voštanih komora pčela postiđuje ponekad  ljudskog  graditelja. Ali što unapred odvaja i najgorega graditelja od najbolje pčele jeste da je on svoju komoru izgradio u glavi pre no što će je izgraditi u vosku. Na završetku procesa rada izlazi rezultat kakav je na početku procesa već postojao u radnikovoj zamisli, dakle idealno. Ne postiže on samo promjenu oblika prirodnih stvari; on u njima ujedno ostvaruje i svoju svrhu koja mu je poznata, koja poput zakona određuje put i način njegova rađenja, i kojoj mora da potčini svoju volju. A ovo potčinjavanje nije usamljen čin. Pored naprezanja organa koji rade, traži se za sve vreme trajanja rada i svrsishodna volja, koja se očituje kao pažnja, i to tim više što radnika manje bude privlačila sadržina samog rada i način njegovog izvođenja, dakle što manje on bude uživao u radu kao u igri svojih sopstvenih telesnih i duhovnih sila. Ukoliko radnik više osvaja vanjski svijet, utoliko više oduzima sebi životna sredstva Radnik postaje utoliko siromašniji ukoliko proizvodi više bogatstva, ukoliko njegova proizvodnja dobiva više na moći i opsegu. Radnik postaje utoliko jeftinija roba ukoliko stvara više robe. Povećanjem vrijednosti svijeta stvari raste obezvrjeđivanje čovjekova svijeta u upravnom razmjeru. Rad ne proizvodi samo robe; on proizvodi sebe sama i radnika kao robu, i to u razmjeru u kojem uopće proizvodi robe. Ta činjenica izražava samo ovo: da se predmet proizveden radom, njegov proizvod, suprotstavlja njemu kao tuđe biće, kao sila nezavisna od proizvođača. Proizvod rada jest rad koji se fiksirao u jednom predmetu, koji je postao stvar, to je opredmećenje rada. Ostvarenje [Verwirklichung] rada jest njegovo opredmećenje. Ovo ostvarenje rada pojavljuje se u nacionalnoekonomskom stanju kao obestvarenje [Entwirklichung] radnika, opredmećenje kao gubitak i ropstvo predmeta, prisvajanje kao otuđenje, kao ospoljenje. Ostvarenje rada toliko se pojavljuje kao obestvarenje, da se radnik obestvaruje do smrti od gladi. Opredmećenje se toliko pojavljuje kao gubitak predmeta, da je radnik lišen najnužnijih predmeta, ne samo predmeta za život nego i predmeta rada. Štoviše, sam rad postaje predmet kojeg se radnik može domoći samo najvećim naporom i sasvim neredovnim prekidima. Prisvajanje predmeta pojavljuje se do te mjere kao otuđenje, da ukoliko radnik proizvodi više predmeta, utoliko može manje posjedovati i utoliko više dospijeva pod vlast svog proizvoda, kapitala. Sve te konsekvencije nalaze se u određenju da se radnik prema proizvodu svoga rada odnosi kao prema tuđem predmetu. Jer prema toj pretpostavci je jasno: ukoliko se radnik svojim radom više eksteriorizuje, utoliko moćniji postaje tuđi, predmetni svijet koji on stvara sebi nasuprot, utoliko postaje siromašniji on sam, njegov unutrašnji svijet, utoliko njemu samome manje pripada. Razmotrimo sad pobliže opredmećenje, proizvodnju radnika i u njoj otuđenje, gubitak predmeta, njegova proizvoda. Radnik ne može ništa stvarati bez prirode, bez osjetilnog vanjskog svijeta. To je materijal na kojem se ostvaruje njegov rad, u kojemu je on djelatan, iz kojega i pomoću kojega on proizvodi. Kao što priroda, međutim, pruža radu životna sredstva u smislu da rad ne može živjeti bez predmeta na kojima se vrši, tako ona, s druge strane, pruža i životna sredstva u užem smislu, naime sredstva za fizičko izdržavanje samog radnika. Dakle, ukoliko radnik pomoću svoga rada više osvaja vanjski svijet, osjetilnu prirodu, utoliko više oduzima sebi životna sredstva u dva smisla: prvo, tako što osjetilni svijet sve više prestaje da bude predmet koji pripada njegovu radu, životno sredstvo njegova rada; drugo, što vanjski svijet sve više prestaje da bude životno sredstvo u neposrednom smislu, sredstvo za fizičko izdržavanje radnika. Nastaviće se

Let us not flatter ourselves too much for our human victories over nature But let us not flatter ourselves too much for our human victories over nature. For every such victory, nature takes revenge on us. True, each of them has in the first place the consequences on which we counted, but in the second and third place it has quite different, unforeseen consequences, which very often cancel out the first ones. The people who in Mesopotamia, Greece, Asia Minor and elsewhere cleared the forests to obtain arable land did not even dream that they were thereby laying the foundations of the present desolation of those lands, depriving them, together with the forests, of the centers for the collection and retention of moisture. When the Alpine Italians cleared the fir forests on the southern slopes of the mountains, so carefully guarded on the northern slopes, they did not even suspect that they were thereby cutting off the roots of mountain cattle breeding in their area; still less did they suspect that they had thereby deprived their mountain springs of water for the greater part of the year, so that during the rains these springs might pour down even more furious torrents upon the plain. The people who spread potatoes throughout Europe did not know that with these floury tubers they were also spreading scrofula. And so facts remind us at every step that we do not rule nature as a conqueror rules a foreign people, as someone standing outside of nature, but that with our flesh, blood, and brain we belong to it and stand in its midst, and that all our power over it consists in the fact that we have the advantage over all other creatures of being able to know and correctly apply its laws. And we are, in fact, learning every day to understand its laws more accurately and to learn the closer and more distant consequences of our interventions in the ordinary course of nature. Especially after the enormous successes of natural science in this century, we are increasingly able to recognize and thus overcome the more distant natural consequences of even our most ordinary operations in the field of production. And the more this happens, the more people will not only feel again but also know that they are one with nature. Animals also change nature by their activity Animals, as we have already mentioned, also change external nature by their activity, although not to the same extent as man, and this change of their environment again, as we have seen, has a reciprocal effect on its causes, causing changes in them. For nothing happens in nature in isolation. Each phenomenon affects another, and vice versa, and in most cases it is precisely the forgetting of this versatile movement and mutual action that prevents our naturalists from seeing the simplest things clearly. We have seen how goats hinder the reforestation of Greece; on St. Helena the goats and pigs, which were brought there by the first sailors, succeeded in almost completely destroying the old vegetation of the island, and thus prepared the ground for the spread of those plants that were brought there later by sailors and colonists. But when animals permanently affect their environment, this happens unintentionally, and it is, for the animals themselves, something accidental. The more people move away from animals, the more their action on nature takes on the character of deliberate, planned action towards certain, known goals. An animal destroys the vegetation of a region without knowing what it is doing. Man destroys it in order to sow grain on the liberated soil or plant trees and vines, which he knows will bring him a harvest that several times exceeds what he sowed or planted. He transfers useful plants and domestic animals from one country to another and thus changes the flora and fauna of entire parts of the world. Work is above all a process between man and nature Work is above all a process between man and nature, a process in which man, by his own activity, enables, regulates, and controls his exchange of matter with nature. He himself appears as a natural force towards natural matter. He sets in motion the natural forces of his body, arms and legs, head and hand, in order to adapt natural matter to himself in a form usable for his life. By acting on nature outside himself and changing it through this movement, he also changes his own nature. He develops the forces that lie dormant in it and subordinates their play to his own power. We are not talking here about the first instinctive forms of animal labor. The state when human labor had not yet shaken off the first instinctive form is far behind in the mists of ancient times the state when the worker appears on the commodity market as a seller of his own labor power. We assume labor in a form that is peculiar only to man. The spider performs operations similar to those of a weaver, and by building its wax chambers, the bee sometimes puts the human builder to shame. But what distinguishes even the worst builder from the best bee in advance is that he has built his chamber in his head before he builds it in wax. At the end of the work process, the result emerges which already existed in the worker's imagination at the beginning of the process, that is, ideally. He does not merely achieve a change in the form of natural things; he also realizes in them his purpose which is known to him, which, like a law, determines the path and manner of his work, and to which he must subordinate his will. And this subordination is not an isolated act. In addition to the exertion of the working organs, a purposeful will is also required throughout the duration of the work, which manifests itself as attention, and this is all the more so the less the worker is attracted by the content of the work itself and the manner of its execution, that is, the less he enjoys work as a play of his own physical and mental powers. The more the worker conquers the external world, the more he deprives himself of the means of life The worker becomes the poorer the more wealth he produces, the more his production gains in power and scope. The worker becomes the cheaper commodity the more he creates. With the increase in the value of the world of things, the devaluation of the world of man increases in direct proportion. Labor does not only produce commodities; it produces itself and the worker as a commodity, and this in proportion to the extent to which it produces commodities at all. This fact expresses only this: that the object produced by labor, its product, confronts it as an alien being, as a force independent of the producer. The product of labor is labor that has become fixed in an object, that has become a thing, that is, the objectification of labor. The realization [Verwirklichung] of labor is its objectification. This realization of labor appears in the national economic situation as the derealization [Entwirklichung] of the worker, objectification as the loss and slavery of the object, appropriation as alienation, as alienation. The realization of labor appears to such an extent as derealization that the worker is derealized to the point of starvation. Objectification appears to such an extent as the loss of the object that the worker is deprived of the most necessary objects, not only objects of life but also objects of labor. Moreover, work itself becomes an object that the worker can achieve only with the greatest effort and quite irregular interruptions. Appropriation of objects appears to such an extent as alienation, that if the worker produces more objects, the less he can own and the more he comes under the control of his product, capital. All these consequences are found in the determination that the worker treats the product of his work as someone else's object. Because according to that assumption it is clear: if the worker exteriorizes himself more with his work, the more powerful he becomes, the object world he creates in opposition to himself, the poorer he himself becomes, his inner world, the less he belongs to himself. Let's now take a closer look at reification, the production of the worker and in it the alienation, the loss of the object, its product. The worker cannot create anything without nature, without the sensory external world. It is the material on which his work is realized, in which he is active, from which and with which he produces. Just as nature, however, provides labor with means of life in the sense that work cannot live without the objects on which it is performed, so it, on the other hand, also provides means of life in a narrower sense, namely the means for the physical support of the worker himself. Therefore, if the worker through his work conquers the external world, the sensory nature, the more he takes away his means of life in two senses: first, by the fact that the sensible world ceases more and more to be an object that belongs to his work, the means of life of his work; secondly, as the outside world increasingly ceases to be a means of life in the immediate sense, a means for the physical support of workers. To be continued .